The purpose of this paper is to examine how strategic Human Resource Management (HRM) practices can enhance psychological well-being and reduce burnout among football managers operating within elite sporting environments, with a particular focus on the English Premier League (EPL). Elite football managers are considered “elite” not only because they operate at the highest competitive level, but also because they work within high stakes, commercially driven, and globally scrutinised environments that demand exceptional leadership, emotional regulation, and decision-making under pressure. The EPL is widely recognised as one of the most commercially valuable and internationally visible football leagues, characterised by intense competition, extensive financial investment, and global media interest.
Although scholarly attention on athlete mental health has expanded considerably, the psychological well-being of football managers remains significantly underexplored (Fletcher and Arnold, 2017; Woods, Richards and Smith, 2025). Managers in elite football contexts face sustained performance expectations, heightened public scrutiny, and organisational instability, all of which escalate the risk of stress and burnout (Bridgewater, 2010; Frost et al., 2024). Their responsibilities extend beyond match preparation to encompass player motivation, media communication, conflict management, and strategic leadership, often within emotionally charged and politically complex environments.
Historically, managerial burnout has been a silent and under-discussed issue within professional football, including among managers who migrate from diverse regions such as Africa and Asia to the EPL (Gustafsson et al., 2017; Müller and Kubátová, 2025). Earlier accounts of football management suggest that long-standing cultural expectations of relentless performance contributed to concealed emotional strain. Contemporary research now recognises burnout as a widespread problem shaped by organisational stressors, high managerial turnover, and insufficient support mechanisms, all of which undermine leadership capacity and well-being (Frost et al., 2024). As organisational psychology and HRM literature evolve, newer frameworks increasingly emphasise the need for supportive practices that enable sustainable performance among leaders in high-pressure roles.
A defining feature of elite football management is the short average managerial tenure within the EPL, with many managers serving fewer than two years. This reflects the pervasive instability and performance-driven culture of the league (Bridgewater, 2010). Despite growing recognition of these challenges, HRM practices in many football clubs remain reactive rather than strategic, prioritising short-term results over long-term managerial well-being (Guest, 2017). Addressing this gap, the present study examines how HRM interventions can strengthen resilience and mitigate burnout among managers in elite football settings.
Although burnout has been studied extensively among athletes and coaching staff, empirical and theoretical attention to managerial well-being in elite professional football remains limited. This gap is pronounced given the unique pressures of elite environments, where managers operate within high-stakes, highly commercialised systems that require consistent performance and strong leadership. Furthermore, while frameworks such as the Job Demands–Resources (JDR) model and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) have been widely applied to organisational and healthcare settings, their application to football management is underdeveloped (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007; Deci and Ryan, 2000). Recent scholarship highlights the need for adaptable HRM strategies tailored to elite sport contexts, where psychological risk factors are intensified (Pilkington et al., 2024).
This study contributes to closing this gap by integrating three complementary HRM frameworks: the Job Demands–Resources (JDR) model, the Ability–Motivation–Opportunity (AMO) framework (Appelbaum et al., 2000), and the Mutual Gains Perspective (Guest, 2017; Ogbonnaya and Aryee, 2021; Peccei and Van De Voorde, 2019). Together, these models provide a multi-level understanding of stress mechanisms, HRM design, and the strategic alignment of well-being with organisational objectives within elite managerial roles.
Manchester United Football Club (MUFC) is selected as the case study due to its global stature, commercial influence, and complex organisational structure. The club’s history of managerial turnover and its high-performance culture make it an instructive context for examining how HRM approaches can balance performance demands with sustainable leadership practices. Evidence from the Premier League’s financial reporting and independent industry analyses, including Deloitte’s Football Money League, supports Manchester United’s relevance as a representative case for elite managerial pressures within top-tier football (Deloitte, 2024). Insights derived from MUFC therefore hold transferable value for other clubs operating in similar elite environments.
This research offers important implications for stakeholders including football clubs, governing organisations, player associations, and policy bodies. Initiatives such as the Football Association’s Heads Up mental health programme and the Mental Health Charter for Sport and Recreation demonstrate increasing attention to psychological well-being at institutional levels (The Football Association, 2019/2020; FIFPRO, 2024). Integrating HRM-driven well-being strategies within football organisations can help align club practices with these policy frameworks while promoting sustainable and effective leadership.
The study addresses the following Research Questions (RQs):
RQ1. How do job demands and resources contribute to burnout among English Premier League (EPL) managers? RQ2. How can Human Resource Management (HRM) strategies be designed to strengthen resilience and well-being within football management? RQ3. What actionable insights can be drawn from the Manchester United Football Club context to inform other clubs about managing managerial burnout and well-being among managers facing burnout?
This literature review examines psychological well-being and burnout among elite football managers and evaluates how Human Resource Management (HRM) frameworks can be used to mitigate risk and support sustainable leadership. It integrates three complementary perspectives - the Job Demands–Resources (JDR) model, the Ability–Motivation–Opportunity (AMO) framework, and the Mutual Gains Perspective (MGP) - to explain stress mechanisms, inform HRM system design, and align well-being with organisational outcomes in the English Premier League (EPL). Across the review, the focus remains on clarifying why the EPL constitutes an elite context and why managerial roles within it should be treated as elite professional work.
Elite sport refers to performance at the highest professional levels, where competition intensity, commercial stakes, and public visibility are exceptionally high. The EPL is a paradigmatic elite setting: it is globally broadcast, commercially powerful, and characterised by intense match schedules, international stakeholder attention, and continuous media scrutiny. Within such environments, managerial decisions can affect brand value, competitive outcomes, and multimillion‑pound assets, which elevates the leadership role beyond routine coaching to complex strategic management (Bridgewater, 2010; Deloitte, 2024). Managers are expected to deliver results rapidly, navigate high staff turnover, and respond to variable ownership expectations - conditions associated with psychological strain and reduced job security (Fletcher and Arnold, 2017; Frost et al., 2024). These contextual features justify treating EPL managers as elite professionals whose work occurs under high‑demand, high‑stakes conditions distinct from lower tiers of the game.
Burnout is typically conceptualised as comprising emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation or cynicism, and reduced personal accomplishment, and is frequently assessed using instruments derived from the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) (Maslach and Jackson, 1981; Schaufeli and Taris, 2014; Maslach and Leiter, 2016). These symptoms commonly arise in roles requiring sustained emotional labour - both surface acting and deep acting - to project composure under pressure (Hochschild, 1983; Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002). In elite football, managers operate under relentless performance expectations, volatile organisational climates, and continuous public evaluation, all of which elevate stress risk (Fletcher and Arnold, 2017; Woods, Richards and Smith, 2025). Studies indicate that managerial burnout is shaped by organisational stressors and high turnover, and it can undermine decision quality, leadership presence, and team climate (Frost et al., 2024; Gustafsson et al., 2017). Although research on players and coaches is expanding, the HRM lens on managerial well‑being remains comparatively underdeveloped, warranting tailored frameworks for elite leadership contexts (Pilkington et al., 2024).
The Job Demands–Resources (JDR) model is a widely applied theoretical framework used to explain how job characteristics influence employee well‑being, motivation, and performance. It proposes that strain and burnout occur when job demands - such as time pressure, role ambiguity, emotional labour, and media scrutiny - exceed the job resources available to cope, such as autonomy, social support, performance feedback, and opportunities for recovery (Demerouti et al., 2001; Bakker and Demerouti, 2007). At the same time, sufficient resources can foster motivation and engagement, buffering the harmful effects of high demands (Schaufeli and Taris, 2014; Bakker and Demerouti, 2017). The model’s strengths include its flexibility across occupations, its dual pathways (strain and motivation), and its diagnostic value for HRM intervention design. However, limitations arise when demands and resources are treated generically rather than being specified and measured within a given context, which can hinder precise intervention design (Crawford, LePine and Rich, 2010; Schaufeli, 2017).
In the EPL, managers experience volatile performance expectations, intensive media exposure, and tenure insecurity, often without commensurate structural supports such as protected recovery windows or embedded psychological services. The JDR model helps identify the demand–resource imbalance, thereby justifying targeted interventions including greater decision autonomy, structured peer support, confidential counselling access, workload and schedule regulation, and micro‑recovery routines to sustain leadership effectiveness (Bakker and Demerouti, 2017; Fletcher and Arnold, 2017).
The Ability–Motivation–Opportunity (AMO) framework proposes that performance depends on enhancing employee ability (skills and knowledge), motivation (willingness and drive), and opportunity (the autonomy and resources to apply skills). In HRM scholarship, AMO is used to design coherent practice bundles that develop capabilities, sustain motivation, and enable contribution (Appelbaum et al., 2000; Boxall and Purcell, 2011). Its strengths lie in diagnostic clarity and system design utility, though scholars note conceptual heterogeneity and measurement inconsistencies across studies, particularly around distinguishing individual AMO attributes from AMO‑enhancing practices (Bos‑Nehles et al., 2023; Jiang et al., 2012).
In the EPL context, AMO translates a JDR diagnosis into HRM action. Where demands are structurally high, clubs can elevate managerial resources by investing in ability (for example, leadership development for decision‑making under uncertainty, media handling, and psychological literacy), strengthening motivation (for example, transparent objectives beyond single‑match outcomes, fair appraisal cycles, and recognition aligned to developmental milestones), and expanding opportunity (for example, clear remit and autonomy in selection and strategy, inclusive governance, and access to specialists such as analysts or performance psychologists).
The JDR model explains why managers experience strain - demands outweigh resources - while the AMO framework clarifies how HRM can respond by systematically increasing resources. Ability‑enhancing practices build coping efficacy and decision quality; motivation‑enhancing practices strengthen energy and persistence; opportunity‑enhancing practices expand autonomy, participation, and access to support. Together they provide a pathway from diagnosis to design: as job demands rise, AMO‑aligned HR strategies deliberately increase the resources that buffer strain and enable sustained, effective leadership (Bakker and Demerouti, 2017; Jiang et al., 2012).
The Mutual Gains Perspective (MGP) positions employee well‑being as a primary strategic objective that can co‑deliver performance when HRM is designed around positive reciprocity and a strong employment relationship. Rather than treating well‑being as incidental, MGP argues that supportive HR practices can yield dual outcomes - healthier employees and better organisational results - provided they avoid work intensification and are credibly implemented (Guest, 2017; Peccei and Van De Voorde, 2019). Evidence linking well‑being‑oriented HR systems to psychological health and service performance continues to accumulate; however, credible measurement and longitudinal alignment are required to prevent superficial adoption (Ogbonnaya and Aryee, 2021; Van de Voorde, Paauwe and Van Veldhoven, 2012).
In elite football, EPL organisations often privilege short‑term performance management - such as mid‑season managerial changes - with mixed returns, suggesting underinvestment in well‑being‑oriented HRM. An MGP approach reframes success criteria so that well‑being indicators are integrated into HR and governance dashboards, shifting organisations from crisis reactivity to long‑term sustainability.
Sector initiatives have begun to normalise help‑seeking, strengthen literacy, and improve referral pathways for mental health in football. Programmes associated with the Football Association’s mental health agenda and union‑led supports emphasise confidential access to services, crisis support, signposting to specialist providers, and guidance for recognising early signs of distress (The Football Association, 2019/2020; FIFPRO, 2024). Club‑level well‑being training and employee assistance provision can be embedded within HRM systems so that psychological support, routine debriefs, and recovery policies become standard rather than ad hoc processes.
Figure 1, titled “Adapted HRM Well‑Being Framework,” represents a three‑layer pathway linking diagnosis, design, and strategic alignment in the EPL context. The diagnostic layer uses the JDR model to clarify pressures such as media scrutiny, time pressure, and tenure insecurity; the design layer applies AMO to translate these diagnoses into HRM practices that enhance ability, motivation, and opportunity; and the alignment layer uses MGP to ensure that well‑being is an explicit strategic objective monitored alongside performance indicators.
Policy linkage is essential for implementation. Club HRM systems can embed national guidance, such as FA mental health initiatives and union‑supported referral pathways, by integrating confidential mental health services, routine psychological debriefs, and well‑being indicators into governance structures.
By integrating the JDR model, the AMO framework, and the MGP, this literature review provides a multidimensional foundation for strengthening managerial well‑being in elite football. JDR clarifies mechanisms of stress and burnout; AMO offers a blueprint for HRM practice design; and MGP aligns those practices with strategic goals so that well‑being and performance can coexist. This synthesis identifies actionable HRM levers and policy‑consistent interventions capable of reducing burnout risk while supporting sustained leadership effectiveness. These theoretical foundations inform the methodological choices outlined in the next chapter, particularly the use of documentary analysis and thematic mapping to the Job Demands–Resources (JDR) model, the Ability–Motivation–Opportunity (AMO) framework, and the Mutual Gains Perspective (MGP).
This chapter outlines the philosophical stance, research design, data collection strategy, analytic procedures, and quality safeguards used to examine psychological well‑being, burnout, and Human Resource Management (HRM) practices influencing elite football managers in the English Premier League (EPL). The study adopts a qualitative, interpretivist, single‑case study design drawing exclusively on documentary (secondary) data. Reflexive considerations are integrated throughout to demonstrate transparency, acknowledge access constraints in elite sport, and ensure methodological integrity.
An interpretivist orientation underpins the study. Interpretivism conceptualises social reality as context‑bound and meaning‑laden, requiring attention to how managerial experiences are constructed, represented, and interpreted within cultural, organisational, and media narratives (Creswell, 2013; Silverman, 2020). Because the study uses publicly available documents rather than primary interviews, interpretivism supports meaning‑oriented analysis without implying co‑constructed data.
The aim is analytical generalisation - developing rich conceptual insights into how the Job Demands–Resources (JDR) model and HRM practices relate to managerial well‑being - rather than statistical generalisation (Yin, 2018). Reflexively, the researcher acknowledged how prior familiarity with football culture, assumptions regarding leadership in high‑pressure settings, and awareness of EPL dynamics could influence interpretation. Analytical memos were therefore used to monitor assumptions and ensure interpretations remained grounded in evidence rather than personal inference.
Documentary analysis was selected because direct access to EPL managers is highly restricted, making secondary data an ethically proportionate and feasible route for exploring elite managerial work.
A qualitative single‑case study design enables in‑depth examination of a contemporary phenomenon in its real‑world context, particularly where boundaries between phenomenon and context are blurred (Yin, 2018). Manchester United Football Club (MUFC) was chosen due to its global visibility, sustained media scrutiny, history of managerial turnover, and abundance of publicly available material documenting leadership experiences.
This design allows exploration of how media pressure, organisational structures, performance expectations, and HRM practices interact to influence managerial well‑being. It also facilitates theoretical transferability to other elite football environments (Silverman, 2020). Reflexively, the richness of MUFC’s documentation informed the case selection, while memos were used to track how the researcher’s expectations about MUFC’s governance and culture might shape interpretation.
Delimitations were established to maintain analytic coherence (Flick, 2014). The temporal scope focuses on the modern EPL era from 1992 onwards, reflecting intensified commercialisation, media attention, and global branding, which shaped managerial experiences and generated substantial documentation. The contextual delimitation concentrates on elite football environments characterised by emotionally charged atmospheres, short‑term performance horizons, and complex stakeholder dynamics.
Analytically, the study focuses on managerial experiences and publicly observable HRM‑related structures rather than attempting a full audit of MUFC’s internal HR architecture. These boundaries ensured depth and feasibility while recognising that secondary sources cannot capture all aspects of internal organisational life. Reflexive notes were used to monitor how these delimitations influenced coding and interpretation.
Data collection relied exclusively on documentary analysis, a systematic approach to reviewing and interpreting textual materials to identify meaning, context, and patterns (Bowen, 2009). Sources included authenticated press‑conference transcripts, manager interviews, long‑form media features, autobiographies, academic literature, and industry reports relating to elite football leadership, stress, well‑being, and HRM.
Documentary analysis offers advantages of non‑reactivity and preservation of naturally occurring accounts. However, limitations include potential editorial framing, selective reporting, and incomplete narrative representation. These limitations were mitigated through triangulation and analytic transparency (Silverman, 2020). Reflexively, caution was exercised to avoid over‑interpreting media‑constructed narratives, and alternative explanations were documented in memos when uncertainty arose.
The study applied explicit inclusion rules to ensure coherence and methodological rigour. Table 1 summarises the criteria, rationale, and supporting literature.
Table 1. Source Inclusion Criteria, Rationale, and Supporting Literature
| Inclusion Criterion | Rationale | Supporting Citation |
|---|---|---|
| Authenticated, publicly available documents (e.g., reputable media, published books, verified transcripts) | Ensures legitimacy, traceability, and ethical compliance | Bowen (2009) |
| Substantive relevance to HRM, leadership, stress/burnout, resilience, or elite football management | Aligns data clearly with research aims and research questions | Silverman (2020) |
| Coverage across different managerial eras and career stages | Increases contextual richness and supports comparison | Yin (2018) |
| Sufficient editorial standards (established outlets, verified publications) | Enhances reliability and reduces distortion | Maxwell (2013) |
Purposive sampling was used to select documents most relevant to the research questions and inclusion criteria. This approach emphasises information‑rich cases and fit‑to‑purpose selection rather than representativeness, aligning with qualitative case‑study methodology (Patton, 2015). Screening prioritised authenticity, relevance to HRM and well‑being, and contribution to understanding managerial burnout and resilience. Reflexive memos were used to document the reasoning behind document selection, particularly when multiple sources addressed similar events with differing interpretations.
The analysis followed reflexive thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2006), progressing through familiarisation, coding, theme generation, theme review, and theme definition. Coding captured patterns associated with job demands such as performance pressure, media scrutiny, and fixture congestion; job resources including autonomy, support staff, and recovery opportunities; and HRM practices involving development, appraisal systems, and governance structures.
Reflexive thematic analysis aligns with interpretivism because it positions the researcher as an active meaning‑maker (Nowell et al., 2017). Analytic decisions were documented to reveal underlying assumptions, clarify reasoning, and justify theme boundaries. When ambiguity persisted - such as interpreting whether managerial statements reflected emotional labour or reputational protection - alternative interpretations were documented, compared, and resolved through reference to both theory and additional data.
NVivo supported systematic data management and transparency in analysis. Documents were imported and coded line‑by‑line, with analytic memos linked to nodes to record interpretive development and theoretical alignment. Query functions such as matrix coding and word searches were used to explore relationships between concepts and examine code density. Visualisations, including coding hierarchies, assisted in assessing thematic structure and coherence.
These processes strengthened the audit trail and enhanced dependability by ensuring coding decisions were traceable and reviewable (Silverman, 2020). Reflexively, NVivo was used as an organisational tool rather than an interpretive substitute; memos remained essential for documenting interpretive judgements and positionality.
Following coding, themes were systematically mapped to the study’s conceptual frameworks. The Job Demands–Resources (JDR) model illuminated how demands such as media scrutiny, time pressure, and insecurity contributed to emotional exhaustion, while resources such as autonomy, support networks, and recovery opportunities acted as buffers (Demerouti et al., 2001).
The Ability–Motivation–Opportunity (AMO) framework clarified how HRM practices influenced managerial capability, motivation, and opportunity - for example, through leadership development, appraisal horizons, and governance structures (Appelbaum et al., 2000). The Mutual Gains Perspective (MGP) reinforced how HRM systems can enhance well‑being and performance when credibly implemented (Guest, 2017; Peccei and Van De Voorde, 2019).
Reflexively, theme‑to‑theory mapping was undertaken cautiously to avoid forcing data into frameworks. Discrepant or boundary cases were retained to enrich interpretation and avoid theoretical overreach.
Triangulation across document types including manager interviews, autobiographies, reputable news features, and academic or industry reports was used to strengthen credibility (Denzin, 1978; Flick, 2014). Instead of seeking numerical convergence, the approach focused on whether interpretive patterns recurred across independent sources. Convergences increased confidence in interpretation, while divergences prompted further examination of contextual contingencies. Reflexive notes documented how conflicting accounts were evaluated and resolved.
Rigour was established according to Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) criteria. Credibility was enhanced through triangulation, iterative theme refinement, and reflexive memoing. Dependability was strengthened through an audit trail comprising coding logs, memos, and NVivo query outputs. Confirmability was enhanced by distinguishing data‑led insights from theory‑led interpretations and recording the rationale for decisions. Transferability was supported by detailed contextual descriptions of EPL managerial conditions (Shenton, 2004; Nowell et al., 2017). Reflexivity was integral throughout, with ongoing documentation of how assumptions, prior knowledge, and interpretive positioning may have influenced analytic choices.
As no human participants were involved, consent and debrief procedures were unnecessary. Ethical considerations focused on accurate attribution, respectful handling of mental‑health‑related content, and proportionate use of publicly accessible material. The study adhered to the British Psychological Society’s Code of Human Research Ethics and Ethics Guidelines for Internet‑Mediated Research (British Psychological Society, 2021a; 2021b). Reflexively, sensitive information was paraphrased with care to avoid sensationalism and ensure fidelity to context.
Reliance on secondary documents restricts the ability to probe meanings or clarify ambiguous narratives, and interpretations may be subject to editorial or retrospective bias (Bowen, 2009; Silverman, 2020). Triangulation and reflexive memoing mitigated these risks by ensuring interpretive transparency. As a single case study, findings are context‑specific; however, analytical generalisation is supported by linking insights to broader theoretical frameworks and features common to elite football organisations (Yin, 2018). Interpretations were framed cautiously to emphasise plausible explanation rather than causal certainty.
This study examined the psychological well‑being, burnout risks, and Human Resource Management (HRM) practices shaping elite football management in England, using Manchester United Football Club (MUFC) as the focal case within the broader English Premier League (EPL) context. The dataset comprised authenticated manager interviews, press‑conference transcripts, reputable long‑form media features, autobiographical materials, and sector reports. A reflexive thematic analysis was conducted following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six‑phase framework, enabling iterative movement between familiarisation, coding, theme refinement, and interpretive synthesis. Ethical considerations adhered to the British Psychological Society’s Code of Human Research Ethics and its Ethics Guidelines for Internet‑Mediated Research (British Psychological Society, 2021a; 2021b).
The findings are organised around three core research questions. The first explores the key stressors affecting EPL managers and the extent to which these pressures are embedded within the structural and cultural dynamics of elite football. The second examines how HRM policies and organisational practices influence managerial well‑being, particularly in relation to burnout mitigation and the psychological contract. The third considers the strategic HRM interventions that can support sustainable leadership by strengthening resilience, enhancing organisational alignment, and improving the overall managerial environment.
The raw data for the findings presented in this sub‑section is included in Appendix B: Raw data supporting the findings.
Elite football management is characterised by persistent job insecurity and intense performance pressure. Across the EPL, managerial tenures average two to three years (SQaF, 2026), reflecting limited tolerance for underperformance and rapid cycles of change. MUFC exemplifies these dynamics: since the post–Sir Alex Ferguson era, the club has undergone repeated managerial transitions, with “loss of office” payments approaching £100 million since 2014 (Sky News, 2026; Sky Sports, 2023). José Mourinho’s widely publicised post‑match demand for “respect” (ITV, 2018/2025) illustrates the reputational scrutiny managers face following setbacks. These patterns demonstrate how performance pressure functions simultaneously as a structural demand and a reputational stressor, consistent with the Job Demands–Resources (JDR) model’s emphasis on high‑intensity demands that elevate exhaustion risk.
Managers engage in continuous emotional labour to protect team morale, maintain authority, and manage public perception. Following a heavy defeat, Ole Gunnar Solskjær’s comment that “we need to get the players in a better frame of mind” (Metro, 2021; Sky Sports, 2023) highlights the emotional regulation required to stabilise the psychological climate around the squad. Reputational exposure intensifies during downturns, rendering managers the focal point of critique and heightening the emotional labour required to sustain cohesion. These conditions align with the JDR model’s conceptualisation of emotional demands as key drivers of strain, while also highlighting the unique pressures associated with global visibility in elite sport.
Workload intensity emerged as a recurrent stressor. Managers consistently identified congested fixture calendars as structural demands that compress preparation time and undermine recovery for both staff and players. Pep Guardiola’s assertion that “nothing is going to change” regarding the crowded schedule (ESPN, 2022) reflects the entrenched nature of this issue, while sector analyses have raised concerns about the cumulative toll of dense calendars on well‑being (Sky Sports, 2024). From a JDR perspective, schedule density and curtailed recovery windows represent chronic job demands that heighten exhaustion risk and reduce opportunities for resource replenishment.
MUFC’s prolonged organisational turbulence - characterised by cycles of structural reset, managerial turnover, and contested strategic direction - has attracted sustained public scrutiny (Sky Sports, 2023; Total Apex Sports, 2026). Financial reports of substantial severance outlays serve as proxies for institutional instability (Sky News, 2026). Collectively, performance pressure, emotional labour, fixture congestion, and organisational turbulence form a stressor constellation that aligns with, but also extends, traditional organisational stress frameworks by foregrounding public visibility and reputational risk as distinctive elite‑sport demands.
The raw data for the findings presented in this sub‑section is included in Appendix B: Raw data supporting the findings.
Ambiguous governance structures emerged as a significant source of strain. During his interim tenure, Ralf Rangnick questioned fundamental authority lines, asking, “Who were the decision makers? Who could I talk to?” (Standard, 2025). Unclear decision rights and reporting relationships undermined managerial autonomy and impeded strategic progress. From an HRM perspective, ambiguity in leadership architecture weakens the “Opportunity” dimension of the Ability–Motivation–Opportunity (AMO) framework and disrupts the psychological contract by eroding expectations of fair process and voice.
Findings indicate a misalignment between organisational expectations and available support mechanisms during periods of transition. Rangnick’s metaphor that MUFC required “open heart surgery” (United In Focus, 2024) frames the issue as systemic rather than individual. When recruitment structures, reporting lines, and strategic responsibilities are unclear or shifting, perceived organisational support diminishes, trust weakens, and burnout risk increases (Sky News, 2026). These patterns align with research linking HRM system credibility and social support to well‑being outcomes (Guest, 2017; Ogbonnaya & Aryee, 2021).
Fragmentation between football operations, analytics, medical services, and executive leadership constrained timely decision‑making and duplicated workload. Peer assessments during Rangnick’s tenure described cohesion as “next to zero” (Sportskeeda, 2024; Standard, 2025). Such fragmentation reduces managerial opportunity (AMO), increases administrative burden, and heightens strain. Weak horizontal coordination deprives managers of key resources - specialist support, timely data, integrated processes - that buffer JDR‑type demands.
The raw data for the findings presented in this sub‑section is included in Appendix B: Raw data supporting the findings.
Clarifying governance, codifying decision rights, and empowering football operations emerged as foundational interventions. Rangnick’s repeated queries regarding decision‑maker identity highlight the practical consequences of ambiguous authority structures (Standard, 2025). MUFC’s history of costly severance packages further illustrates the organisational consequences of misalignment (Sky News, 2026). Strategic HRM design that articulates leadership lines and stabilises technical direction is therefore essential for managerial resilience.
Managers consistently linked sustainable leadership to systemic workload regulation. Fixture congestion and limited recovery time were widely cited concerns and calls for sector‑wide advocacy were framed as necessary to protect performance and well‑being. Guardiola’s contention that meaningful change “must come from the players” (101 Great Goals, 2024; Sky Sports, 2024) underscores the need for collective action across clubs and governing bodies. Embedding workload indices and recovery adherence within HRM policy aligns with the Mutual Gains Perspective (MGP), which integrates well‑being and performance objectives.
The findings emphasise the value of cohesive support teams that provide complementary expertise and share operational and emotional load. Solskjær’s description that his staff “complement and challenge each other” (Manchester United, 2021) illustrates how role complementarity distributes leadership pressures and supports reflective decision‑making. From an AMO perspective, targeted team design enhances managerial ability (specialist capability), motivation (shared purpose), and opportunity (delegated authority), thereby strengthening resilience and reducing burnout risk.
The analysis revealed three overarching patterns across the research questions. First, EPL managers face a cluster of high‑intensity stressors - performance pressure, emotional labour, fixture congestion, and organisational turbulence - that align with the JDR model’s conceptualisation of chronic job demands. MUFC exemplifies these pressures, but similar patterns are evident across the league.
Second, HRM system alignment emerged as a critical determinant of managerial well‑being. Clear leadership structures, credible support mechanisms, and cohesive cross‑functional coordination mitigate burnout risk, whereas ambiguity, fragmentation, and reactive governance intensify strain. These findings reinforce the AMO framework’s emphasis on autonomy, voice, and resource access as essential for performance and well‑being.
Third, sustainable leadership requires systemic HRM interventions. Structural reform, workload regulation, and resilient support teams were identified as strategic priorities. These interventions reflect the Mutual Gains Perspective by demonstrating that well‑being and performance can be mutually reinforcing when HRM systems are coherent, credible, and strategically embedded.
The findings demonstrate that elite football management is shaped by a constellation of intense job demands, including performance pressure, emotional labour, media scrutiny, and organisational instability. Consistent with the Job Demands–Resources (JDR) model (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007; Demerouti et al., 2001), these pressures represent chronic demands that elevate the risk of emotional exhaustion when not counterbalanced by adequate resources. EPL managers operate under global visibility, heightened public expectations, and compressed performance horizons, making these stressors structurally embedded.
Cross‑club comparisons reinforce this interpretation. Chelsea Football Club, particularly during Roman Abramovich’s ownership, exemplifies managerial short‑termism, with repeated dismissals contributing to chronic job insecurity (BBC Sport, 2022). In contrast, Liverpool’s stability under Jürgen Klopp illustrates how consistent organisational support and aligned leadership structures can buffer stress. Klopp’s emphasis on “mental freshness” and emotional connection (The Guardian, 2021) demonstrates how psychological safety mitigates strain. Similarly, Mikel Arteta’s experience at Arsenal shows how institutional backing during challenging periods enables managers to rebuild culture and develop long‑term leadership credibility (Sky Sports, 2023).
These comparisons highlight that while stressors such as emotional labour, fixture congestion, and reputational pressure are widespread, their impact varies depending on organisational stability and support. This reinforces the applicability of the JDR model to elite football and underscores the need for strategic interventions that alleviate high job demands and strengthen managerial resources.
The findings underscore that poorly aligned HRM practices intensify burnout risks in elite football. At MUFC, unclear leadership structures, inconsistent communication, and fragmented decision‑making processes weakened psychological security and strained the psychological contract. Rangnick’s reflections on governance ambiguity exemplify how opaque structures undermine autonomy and confidence (Standard, 2025; United In Focus, 2024).
By contrast, Liverpool’s leadership model demonstrates the benefits of HRM alignment consistent with the Mutual Gains Perspective (MGP). Under Klopp, open communication, shared ownership of recruitment, and long‑term leadership investment fostered an environment where well‑being and performance reinforced each other. This supports the MGP proposition that employee well‑being and organisational outcomes can co‑exist when HRM systems are credible and avoid work intensification (Guest, 2017; Peccei and Van De Voorde, 2019).
Conversely, Chelsea and episodic phases at Arsenal illustrate how reactive HRM practices - frequent managerial changes, incoherent governance, and fragmented recruitment structures - erode managerial agency. These breakdowns highlight weaknesses in the “Opportunity” dimension of the AMO framework, which emphasises autonomy, voice, and resource access as essential for performance (Appelbaum et al., 2000; Jiang et al., 2012).
Overall, the findings reveal that HRM alignment is a determining factor in either intensifying or mitigating burnout risk. Clubs with coherent, transparent, and strategically integrated HRM systems support managerial resilience; those with fragmented systems magnify strain.
Three strategic HRM intervention priorities emerged. First, structural reform is essential. Clear governance frameworks, defined authority lines, and stable football operations strengthen managerial autonomy and reduce ambiguity. MUFC’s experience shows that governance opacity is a significant source of strain (Standard, 2025; Sky News, 2026).
Second, workload management and sector‑wide calendar reform are critical. Fixture congestion is a systemic demand that cannot be addressed through individual coping strategies alone. Balanced scheduling, protected recovery windows, and coordinated advocacy across clubs and governing bodies are necessary to align elite sport with occupational health principles (ESPN, 2022; Sky Sports, 2024; 101 Great Goals, 2024).
Third, well‑designed support teams play a central role in leadership resilience. Cohesive back‑room teams with complementary expertise distribute operational and emotional loads more effectively, echoing arguments that resilience is an organisational capability rather than solely an individual trait (Caza and Milton, 2012). Practices such as reflective supervision, leadership development, and values‑aligned staffing strengthen the support structures managers rely upon (Luthans, Youssef and Avolio, 2007).
Collectively, these insights demonstrate that sustainable elite management requires systemic HRM redesign rather than isolated well‑being initiatives.
This study has methodological and contextual limitations. The use of documentary analysis restricts the ability to explore lived experiences in depth, as materials may be shaped by media framing or retrospective bias (Bowen, 2009; Berger, 2015). Although triangulation and reflexive analysis mitigated these risks, primary qualitative data would offer richer emotional nuance.
The single case study design supports analytical generalisation but limits statistical generalisability (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2018). Future research could explore multi‑club comparisons, cross‑league analyses, or mixed‑method designs to strengthen transferability.
Elite football leadership is shaped by broader interconnected systems - including assistant coaches, analysts, psychologists, and medical staff. Examining these wider ecosystems would deepen understanding of resilience dynamics across performance departments. Longitudinal research could also track managerial well‑being trajectories across seasons, linking psychological indicators to leadership outcomes and HRM system maturity.
This study makes several contributions to HRM and elite‑sport scholarship. First, it refines the Job demand resources JDR model for elite football by specifying domain‑specific demands such as global reputational exposure, emotionally charged public environments, and ownership‑driven tenure instability while identifying key resources that buffer these pressures.
Second, it operationalises the Ability, Motivation and opportunity AMO framework as a practical design logic for HRM in elite football. The findings show how ability (decision‑making skills under pressure), motivation (fair appraisal horizons), and opportunity (clear governance) can be strategically integrated to strengthen leadership capacity in volatile environments.
Finally, applying the Mutual Gains Perspective demonstrates that psychological well‑can be treated as a strategic performance variable. Integrating well‑being metrics, workload protections, and organisational support into Human Resource management (HRM) systems challenges the assumption that competitive success requires sacrificing managerial well‑being.
Collectively, these contributions provide a coherent foundation for redesigning HRM systems in elite football and reinforce the argument that sustainable performance depends on strategically embedded well‑being structures.
This study examined how strategic Human Resource Management (HRM) practices can enhance psychological well‑being and reduce burnout among English Premier League (EPL) managers, using Manchester United Football Club (MUFC) as the focal case. The findings demonstrate that EPL managers operate within a landscape defined by persistent and structurally embedded pressures, including job insecurity, emotional labour, reputational scrutiny, and leadership isolation. These demands, as identified in RQ1, remain insufficiently addressed by existing organisational systems across the league.
The analysis linked to RQ2 revealed that HRM practices in several EPL clubs do not adequately reflect or support the psychological realities faced by managers. Weak governance structures, unclear reporting lines, and inconsistent well‑being support undermine managerial trust and exacerbate burnout risks. This reinforces the need for strategically aligned HRM frameworks that embed well‑being into everyday organisational processes rather than treating it as an add‑on or crisis response.
Findings relating to RQ3 further demonstrated that resilience should not be conceptualised solely as an individual attribute but as an organisational capability. Clear structures, supportive leadership cultures, balanced workloads, and cohesive back‑room teams collectively strengthen managerial well‑being and help sustain leadership performance in high‑pressure environments. These resources shift responsibility for resilience from personal coping strategies to institutional design and support.
Overall, this study contributes to wider debates advocating a more human‑centred and holistic approach to HRM in elite sport. It positions psychological well‑being as a strategic determinant of leadership sustainability and organisational effectiveness rather than a peripheral concern. The combined use of the Job Demands–Resources (JDR) model, the Ability–Motivation–Opportunity (AMO) framework, and the Mutual Gains Perspective (MGP) provides a robust theoretical foundation for reimagining HRM systems within elite football. Future research should examine multi‑club and cross‑league contexts and adopt longitudinal and primary data approaches to deepen understanding of how HRM systems shape managerial well‑being and leadership culture over time.
Sustainable elite management requires intentional HRM redesign so that psychological well‑being becomes an integrated organisational priority. The following recommendations outline short‑, medium‑, and long‑term actions to support managerial well‑being and leadership resilience.
In the immediate term, clubs should implement actions that stabilise the managerial environment and visibly signal organisational support. Confidential psychological services - such as employee assistance programmes or access to external sports psychologists - should be readily available. Recovery windows following congested fixtures should be protected by avoiding unnecessary meetings within 24 hours of late‑evening matches. Short, structured post‑match debriefs can help managers process emotions and reflect on decision‑making in a controlled setting.
Interim decision‑rights documents should clarify responsibilities around transfers, disciplinary matters, and tactical authority. Collectively, these actions reduce JDR‑type demands, enhance access to meaningful resources, and strengthen the Opportunity dimension of the AMO framework.
Over the medium term, clubs should establish systems that build managerial capability and strengthen organisational alignment. Leadership development programmes tailored to elite sport - covering psychological literacy, decision‑making under pressure, and media management - should be introduced to enhance managerial ability. Appraisal horizons should be redesigned to include longer‑term indicators such as youth integration, tactical evolution, and cultural development.
Weekly cross‑functional coordination meetings between football operations, analytics, medical staff, and recruitment teams should be institutionalised to reduce fragmentation and strengthen structural cohesion. Mapping the roles and skills of coaching and performance staff ensures complementarity across teams and reduces the burden placed on the manager. These strategies reinforce the Ability and Motivation dimensions of the AMO framework and promote resource stability consistent with JDR principles.
Long‑term sustainability requires structural changes at governance and industry levels. Well‑being metrics - such as workload indices, emotional‑climate indicators, and recovery adherence - should be incorporated into board‑level reporting to track managerial health alongside performance outcomes. Appointing a Director of Football with a clear mandate can unify recruitment, analytics, and player‑care systems, creating organisational coherence and reducing managerial ambiguity.
At a wider level, clubs should engage in collective advocacy for fixture reform to address systemic workload pressures affecting both managers and players. These long‑term actions align with the Mutual Gains Perspective by integrating well‑being into strategic governance and performance monitoring.
Clubs seeking to evaluate the maturity of their HRM systems should reflect on five dimensions. First, governance clarity: defined roles, authority lines, and escalation pathways. Second, people‑support mechanisms: psychological services, peer‑support networks, and structured debrief processes. Third, capability systems: leadership development, communication training, and decision‑making support. Fourth, performance architecture: appraisal systems with fair horizons and balanced key performance indicators. Finally, cross‑departmental coordination: the cadence, transparency, and integration of communication across football operations, analytics, medical, and recruitment teams. Together, these dimensions provide a framework for identifying whether HRM systems display foundational gaps, emerging maturity, or strong strategic alignment.
Managers can also benefit from micro‑practices embedded into their routines. Short recovery exercises before and after matches can help regulate stress and support psychological decompression. Increased awareness of emotional triggers can assist in maintaining composure and identity stability during public and internal pressures. Setting communication boundaries such as designated “dark hours” during which non‑essential messages are filtered can reduce cognitive overload. Regular reflective supervision with an independent leadership coach further enhances psychological well‑being and supports long‑term resilience.
Researchers aiming to replicate or extend this study should adopt a clear interpretivist stance and justify the single‑case design. They should define elite criteria such as visibility, commercialisation, and media saturation, and systematically catalogue all documents with appropriate provenance. Consistent inclusion and exclusion criteria should be applied to maintain coherence. A transparent analytic trail should be preserved using NVivo or similar software, alongside reflexive memos documenting positionality and analytic decisions.
Researchers should report both convergence and divergence patterns across data sources, follow ethical guidelines for public‑data research, map themes systematically to research questions and theoretical frameworks, and provide anonymised codebooks or source lists where permissible.
This manuscript is suitable for journals focusing on HRM, sport management, and organisational well‑being, including Human Resource Management Journal , European Sport Management Quarterly , Sport, Business and Management Journal , and the International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics . Submissions should emphasise the novelty of integrating the JDR, AMO, and MGP frameworks within elite football, highlight the applied value of the HRM roadmap, and include an ethics statement confirming that only publicly accessible data were used. A clear data‑availability note referencing the curated document set will support transparency during peer review.
The author declares no conflict of interest with Manchester United Football Club or related organisations. No external funding influenced the design, analysis, or reporting of this study. All evidence derives solely from publicly accessible sources listed in the References.
This manuscript forms part of an ongoing programme of research on HRM and psychological well‑being in elite sport. Constructive insights from peers in sport management and organisational psychology supported the refinement of theoretical frameworks and practical recommendations.
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| Research Question | Theme | Key Insight | Illustrative Extract |
|---|---|---|---|
| RQ1 | Performance pressure and short tenures | EPL managerial roles are unstable; MUFC exemplifies high churn and costly exits | “Respect” - Mourinho (ITV, 2018/2025) |
| RQ1 | Emotional labour and reputational exposure | Managers regulate emotion under intense visibility | “We need to get the players in a better frame of mind” - Solskjær |
| RQ1 | Fixture congestion and recovery deficits | Dense schedules elevate strain | “Nothing is going to change” - Guardiola |
| RQ2 | Leadership clarity and decision rights | Ambiguous governance heightens uncertainty | “Who were the decision makers?” - Rangnick |
| RQ2 | Psychological contract and support | Misalignment reduces trust and increases burnout risk | “Open heart surgery” - Rangnick |
| RQ2 | Cross functional cohesion | Fragmentation undermines timely decisions | “Cohesion was next to zero” - peer account |
| RQ3 | Structural reform | Clear authority reduces ambiguity and strain | Governance gaps highlighted by Rangnick |
| RQ3 | Workload management | Workload metrics essential for sustainability | “Meaningful change must come from the players” - Guardiola |
| RQ3 | Support team resilience | Complementary expertise strengthens resilience | Solskjær’s reflections on staff complementarity |
| Finding / Theme | Raw Data Extract (Qualitative Evidence) |
|---|---|
| 1. Performance Pressure, Job Insecurity, and Short Tenures | “Respect.” - José Mourinho (ITV, 2018/2025) |
| 2. Emotional Labour and Reputational Exposure | “We need to get the players in a better frame of mind.” - Ole Gunnar Solskjær (Metro, 2021; Sky Sports, 2023) |
| 3. Fixture Congestion and Recovery Deficits | “Nothing is going to change.” - Pep Guardiola (ESPN, 2022) |
| 4. Organisational Turbulence and Public Scrutiny at Manchester United | “Loss of office payments approaching £100 million since 2014.” - Sky News (2026) |
| 5. Leadership Clarity, Role Definition, and Decision ‑ Making Structures | “Who were the decision makers? Who could I talk to?” - Ralf Rangnick (Standard, 2025) |
| 6. Psychological Contract and Organisational Support | “The club needs open heart surgery.” - Ralf Rangnick (United In Focus, 2024) |
| 7. Communication, Coordination, and Cross ‑ Functional Cohesion | “Cohesion was next to zero.” - Peer assessment (Sportskeeda, 2024; Standard, 2025) |
| 8. Structural Reform: Clear Authority and Empowered Football Operations | “Who were the decision makers?” - Rangnick (Standard, 2025) |
| 9. Workload Management and Calendar Reform | “Meaningful change must come from the players.” - Pep Guardiola (101 Great Goals, 2024; Sky Sports, 2024) |
| 10. Building Resilient and Complementary Support Teams | “My staff complement and challenge each other.” - Ole Gunnar Solskjær (Manchester United, 2021) |